Concept
of Motion
The world and everything
associated with it are, to a first approximation, nothing but a material
process. Material process is the dynamics (or, in the language of modern physics,
energetics) of existence of both an individual material object or an ensemble thereof,
and of the world as a whole. However, processuality occurs in a huge number of
various forms. Each of these forms can be viewed as a mode of existence of
either an individual object or of an ensemble thereof, or of a single integral
system of objects. Processuality, which shows up in a certain particular form and
thereby expresses the mode of existence of material objects, is actually what
we call motion. Hence by motion we mean not the process itself, but the
particular form of its occurrence, which expresses the corresponding mode of
existence of material objects.
When motion is viewed as a form of
existence of a process, consideration should be taken primarily of the history
of the process proper, which manifests itself in various modifications. Given that
no real process occurs on its own, but only in relation to a particular material
object, the characterization of motion should also take into account the mode
of association and relationships between the constituent components of the
object (its structure) and the nature of
the material medium (its substrate). Thus
motion in the broadest and, we believe, in the most complete sense of the word, is nothing but the mode of existence of
material objects, which consists in the nature of the manifestation of its
processuality and its structural and substrate properties. All the above three characteristics
may vary greatly and hence motion is infinitely variable and its diversity can be
generally viewed as modification of the process.
Modification of the process is a continuous
act of alterations in the existence of the object in relation either to its individual
aspects (properties, dimensionality, configuration, location, etc.), or to its
existence as an integral phenomenon. In this sense motion can be viewed as each
and any change.
Aristotle
and F. Engels about the principal forms of motion
Aristotle was the first philosopher to
analyze the concept of motion from this viewpoint. Based on his identification of
four kinds of causes – substance, quality, quantity, and place – he for the
first time provides a classification of the principal kinds of motion. He distinguishes
two different kinds of change, one of which he associates with form – it is the
process of the generation and destruction of things. He characterizes this kind
of motion as a change in the essence of things. He associates the second kind
of change with the quality, quantity, and place; he defines this kind of motion
as the change of the state of things. It is important that Aristotle’s classification
of the kinds of motion is based on the mode of manifestation of processuality: it
is either the process of the generation and destruction of a thing, or the
process of the change of one of its aspects (quality, quantity, or place). However,
this classification of the kinds of motion ignores the structural and substrate
aspects of material objects.
Among the philosophers of modern time it
was F. Engels who viewed motion as a change in general. Based on the state of knowledge
of his time (the second half of the 19 century), he proceeded from the understanding
of what he considered to be elementary (and, apparently, primary) motion as a
mechanical process, which in the course of the development of matter gradually
evolved into increasingly complex forms of motion. He viewed the substrate base
of material objects as the fundamental criterion of the evolution of the forms
of motion. In accordance with the four kinds of substrate – atoms, molecules, living
protein, and human society – he successively derived from mechanical motion another
four basic forms of motion. These are the motion of: (1) atoms (physical form);
(2) molecules (chemical form); (3) protein bodies (biological form), and,
finally, (4) human activity (social form).
The approach
of F. Engels has two advantages over the Aristotelian classification of the
kinds of motion. First, Engels classifies the forms of motion in accordance
with the substrate base of the material object. However, here we face an uncertainty
concerning the mechanical form: it is unclear what substrate is directly
associated with it. Second - and this point is very important - Aristotle classifies
forms of motion from the perspective of the evolutionary principle: within the
timeline of the transition from low to increasingly higher forms. However, F. Engels,
while focusing his attention on the substrate, overlooked the processual aspect
of motion, and in this sense his approach is inferior to that of Aristotle. There
is an impression that in his classification
Engels treats all forms of motion in terms of the same, namely mechanical, processuality, which only changes its form
depending on the nature of the substrate. In Aristotelian approach, on the
other hand, mechanical process is directly associated only with one kind of
motion - relocation. In all other kinds of motion processuality shows up in its
specific way. Thus, a qualitative change is a transition of opposite properties
into each other; a quantitative change means the transition of something
greater into something smaller or, on the contrary, of somewhat smaller into
somewhat greater; a change of the form consists either in the generation or
destruction of a thing. We thus see that Aristotelian classification of the
kinds of motion is based on the gradation of the processual aspect of motion,
whereas the classification of the forms of motion proposed by F. Engels is
based on the gradation of the substrate base of material objects. As for the
structural aspect of motion, it is absent in both the classification of
Aristotle and in that of F. Engels.
On
the physical nature of electromagnetic field
As we demonstrated above, motion is the unity
of three aspects – the processual, structural, and substrate, - and hence it should be classified not in relation to a
particular aspect, but in relation to all three aspects, and with due
consideration of the specifics of their interrelation. However, at the same
time, we follow the tradition established by the approach of F.Engels and
believe that the classification should be: (1) performed in accordance with the
current level of scientific knowledge (modern science in our case), and, (2)
methodologically based, like the classification of F. Engels, on the
evolutionary principle.
Whereas in the time of F. Engels it was taken
for granted that the primary form of motion was mechanical process, to adhere
to such a view in our times would be a gross error. For example, nuclear processes, which actually
do not represent a form of spatial motion, but rather interconversion,
generation, and destruction of particles, are more fundamental than mechanical process.
Generally speaking, we believe that the classification of forms of matter should
begin not with the definition of a primary process, but rather approach this
issue from a much broader perspective, namely, from the concept of modern
science about two opposite forms of substance – field and substance.
According to modern views, field and substance
are antithetical primarily in two aspects. First, field, in contrast to substance,
has no mass, i.e., in other words, whereas substance is at the same time in the
state of rest and in the state of process, field has always one and only state
– that of process. Second, all kinds of substance have clearly defined spatial boundaries
and in this sense substance is considered to be a discrete form of matter, whereas
field has infinite spatial extent. However, these differences, which follow
from direct scientific observations of field and substance, concern only the
external aspects of their manifestation. At the same time, science knows almost
nothing about their essential difference, about the specific nature of the substrate
base of each of these kinds of matter, nor it does know the specifics of the
structure of each of these kinds of matter, or that of the process behavior in
each of them.
In our book «Qualitative aspect of the world
and its cognition» we tried to propose our own view of this problem. In particular,
based on the well-known fact of the annihilation and birth of an electron and
positron, we suggest a hypothesis about the peculiarities of the physical
nature of electromagnetic field. We believe that in the process of their
annihilation electron and positron do not disappear, but only acquire a
qualitatively new mode of existence: their actual existence transforms into the
mode of virtual existence. Conversely, the process of the birth of these
particles involves the transition of their virtual existence into actual
existence. In other words, we interpret the fact of annihilation and birth of an
electron and positron not as a process of the destruction and birth of particles,
but as a process of the transition of their existence from one mode into
another: from actual into virtual existence (the process of annihilation) and,
vice versa, from virtual into actual existence (the process of the birth of
particles). From the above we make a remarkable conclusion about the physical nature
of electromagnetic field – that it is simply the virtual existence of two
elementary particles, an electron and a positron.
Our analysis of the virtual existence of the
above particles gives us a certain idea about the mode of existence of
electromagnetic field. Its substrate base is a virtual particle consisting of a
mix of electron and positron (е-е+). The relationship
between electron and positron as two particles of identical mass and opposite
electric charges forms the structure of electromagnetic field. The essence of virtuality
consists in the realization of the
process of mutual birth and destruction of an electron and a positron. A continuous
cyclic change occurs that consists of contraction
and scattering of each particle relative to each other: while one of the
particles contracts (i.e., so to speak, is born), the other particle scatters (in
other words, is destroyed), but at the very peak of the act a change of the
process occurs, when, on the contrary, the second particle contracts (is born),
whereas the first particle scatters (is destroyed). The energy potential of each virtual particle
is equal to two photon quanta (2hv(. On the whole, electromagnetic field is a uniform medium consisting of an
infinite number of virtual particles made up of an electron-positron mix. This medium may be in two opposite states: either
in the state of dynamic equilibdium, or, if subject to some external factors,
in an excited state. The former state appears to be what is called the
physical vacuum in quantum mechanics, and the observed cosmological phenomenon
referred to by scientists as dark matter must be directly related to it. When subject to a weak influence,
electromagnetic field emits radio signals. When acted upon by external energy
equal to a photon quantum (hv), light waves appear, and even stronger energy influence results in the emission
of radioactive radiations of different power.
The virtual medium of electromagnetic field
embraces the entire space and in this sense resembles what the 19 century scientists
called the world ether. However, of the three fundamental properties purported to
be inherent to ether – elasticity, universal
pervasiveness, and absolute rest (staticity) – the virtual medium retains the
former two while totally excluding the latter one, which is replaced by the
opposite property of absolute processuality. Moreover, the virtual medium is
also assumed to possess the fourth, structural property. In short, whereas ether
was meant to be sort of a substrate devoid of processuality and structural properties,
by the virtual medium of electromagnetic field is meant a well-defined physical
body consisting of a mix of two elementary particles – electron and positron, which form a single
integral structure and are in the state of a continuous process.
Weak interaction field and its physical nature
We thus view electromagnetic field as the primary form of matter, and its
virtual process, as the primary mode of its existence. However, if we suppose that
nothing else existed initially in the world then, according to the law of entropy,
the field must have reached the state of absolute dynamic equilibrium, which would
totally exclude the variety of now existing material forms, rendering the
question about their evolution meaningless. We therefore have to assume that in
the world there must initially have been, besides electromagnetic field, another,
equally fundamental material basis external to electromagnetic field. We regard
weak interaction field as such a basis.
Our idea of the mode of existence of the
weak interaction field is based on the results of observations of the behavior
of weak interaction performed by researchers. Weak interaction always involves such
elementary particle as neutrino. It is also known from observations of neutrinos
that this particle exists in two forms: neutrino and antineutrino, which have
identical masses, but opposite spins and leptonic charges. It can be assumed,
by analogy with electromagnetic field, that weak interaction field should also
be a mixture of a particle and antiparticle – in this case, neutrino and
antineutrino (υύ). We further proceed from the empirically established fact of mutual
transformation of neutrino into antineutrino and vice versa to conclude that
the existence of these particles in the weak interaction field is also virtual.
However, unlike the virtuality of the particles of electromagnetic field, that
of neutrinos and antineutrinos does not consist in their mutual birth and
destruction, but in the continuous process of their mutual transformation into
each other. Whereas the virtual process between electron and positron has the
form of vibrations, the mutual transition between neutrino and antineutrino has
the form of an oscillations.
This virtual peculiarity of the weak interaction
field determines the specifics of its mode of existence as a whole. Unlike vibrations,
which imply the existence of a continuous medium, oscillations occur between two
solid bodies. It follows from this that the virtual particle of weak interaction
field represents the interaction of two elastic point particles, which are
absolutely singular (neutrino an dantineutrino), and the field as such is
nothing but an accumulation of a great number of these mutually oscillating
particles. Weak interaction field is not a continuous medium permeating the entire
world (which is characteristic for electromagnetic field), but, so to speak, a
granular medium, where each virtual particle is an extremely pointwise and
absolutely singular unity. These unities may accumulate over very different
scales, up to forming isolated cosmic objects, but in all cases their existence
is of local nature within certain spatial boundaries. It is quite possible that the so-called black
holes observed in space are nothing but the cosmic formation of weak interaction
field. The extremely strong gravity of these holes appears to be due to the
fact that they consist of absolutely singular particles - neutrino and
antineutrino - exclusively.
Thus, according to our concept, the initial
form of matter consists of two physical fields – electromagnetic and weak – whose
mode of existence is virtual. Note that both electromagnetic and weak interaction
fields are capable of existing as autonomous cosmic objects. Examples of such an
existence for electromagnetic and weak interaction field are the observed
cosmic formation called the phenomenon of dark matter and black holes,
respectively. However, these objects if considered per se are in all likelihood
closed dynamic equilibrium systems, which means that their physical state is,
if not completely then at least at the margin of absolute entropy. In our opinion,
such cosmic formations can and must be considered as the initial physical basis
for cosmic evolution. However, at the same time, they are by no means its initial
stage. For the evolutionary process to start, these two opposite virtual forms
of matter must start to interact with each other.
Quasar and the beginning of the evolution of substance
Scientists describe quasars as objects that
optically resemble stars and spectroscopically, gaseous nebulae. The
fundamental feature of quasars is that they have a wide range of spectra, which
periodically vary with time giving these objects a great luminous variety. It has
also been established that although, unlike stars, quasars have no clearly defined
spherical shape, they have nevertheless a totally definite spatial form, and
scientists have already found many hundreds of such objects.
According to the current
concepts, initial substance is born inside quasars in the form of elementary
particles. As a result of the interaction of electromagnetic and weak fields, a
metamorphosis involving their virtual particles occurs. Because of the different
nature of the two processes – vibratory process of electromagnetic field and
oscillatory process of the weak interaction field – the components of virtual
particles regroup so that electron (е-) and
positron (е+) «absorb»
antineutrino (ύ) and neutrino (υ), respectively, to form two new
pairs: electron-antioneutrino (е-ύ) and positron-neutrino (е+υ). Such a pairing is determined by
the relation of charges: electric charge of electron and positron and leptonic
charge of neutrino and antineutrino. Negative electric charge of the electron attracts positive leptonic
charge of the antineutrino and repulses negative leptonic charge of the neutrino.
On the other hand, positive electric charge of the positron attracts negative
leptonic charge of the neutrino and repulses positive leptonic charge of the antineutrino.
The newly formed substrate is rather unusual,
it is intermediate between field and substance, because it is not a totally
actual particle, but at the same time it cannot be considered a virtual
particle any more. We call this uncertain substrate state by the term “quark”
(q), which is widely used in modern physics. This substrate is the first thing that
possesses such a fundamental property of matter as mass, which expresses the
state of rest. However, it is important that this state of quarks is their
absolute characteristic. The point is that in the case of the synthesis of two particles
with equal energy potential (hv or mc2), but with opposite
charges of different nature, they find themselves in the state of absolute lock,
i.e., in the state of static equilibrium or, which is the same, in the state of
absolute rest. To somehow distinguish two kinds of quarks, we call the one with
positive electric charge positive quark or simply quark (е+v or q+), and the one with neative electric charge, negative quark or
antiquark (е-ύ or q- ).
Quarks are in the
state of absolute rest and are thereby totally devoid of internal dynamism and absolutely
unstable, and hence cannot exist on their own and begin immediately to interact
with their surrounding virtual particles. As a result, a new – the third – state
of the substrate forms. It is actual substance, which initially has the form of
elementary particles. The first such particles to appear are positive and negative
pi-mesons (q+υύ and q-υύ), followed by neutron and antineutron (e+υύυe+e- or q+q-q+ and e-ύυύe-e+ or q-q+q- ), then by proton and
antiproton (q+υύq+ and q-υύq- ) and, finally, by atomic nucleus and antinucleus, which,
in turn, consist of nuclei (q+ύq+ύq+ and q-υq-υq- for atomic nucleus and antinucleus,
respectively) and, moreover, they are both surrounded by the same envelope – the
virtual particle of electromagnetic field (е-е+).
All the
processes associated with the formation of quarks and of the first elementary
particles occur inside the quasar, and the quasar itself is nothing but the
initial material formation in cosmos. Given that particles and antiparticles form
simultaneously in the quasar, when colliding with each other they break again
into the virtual particles of the fields and everything repeats again and this
cycle may continue infinitely. Quasar light variations appear
to be due to the complex process of synthesis and decay of elementary particles
of different nature that occurs in its interiors and results simultaneously in
the absorption and release of enormous energy. Energy is absorbed during the birth
of particles and released during their decay, and if the quasar is a closed
system, these processes are balanced by each other and thereby ensure stable
existence of the quasar.
However, a quasar, being bounded in space,
has, like any other finite final product, a center (the core) and periphery (the
envelope). The phenomenon of strong redshift that researchers observe in
quasars must be indicative of the change of oscillatory process from high
frequencies at the center to appreciably lower frequencies at the periphery. In
other words, the processual activity of the quasar gradually decreases from the
center toward the periphery, and we consider such a behavior to be the main
condition for further progressive development in the formation of matter. If the
energy processes at the periphery occurred with the same intensity as at the
center, there would be only quasars, dark matter, and black holes in the world,
and there would be not only no life and intelligence, but evem no hydrogen
nebulae, stars, planetary systems, etc.
As we mentioned above, the last particles
in the chain of formation of matter inside the quasar are atomic nuclei. In the
central part of the quasar oppositely charged nuclei (a nucleus and antinucleus)
immediately interact with each other and decay, like peas, into virtual
particles of fields. The slow processual activity in the peripheral part of the
quasar allows nuclei to exist for some time on their own, and this time is
sufficient for the nuclei to enter into contact with virtual particles of
electromagnetic field located outside the quasar. When subject to a strong
electromagnetic influence by quasar nuclei, virtual pareticles (е-е+), decay into individual
electrons (е-) and positrons (е+). This is how electron and positron are born for
the first time. Once born, they immediately become capable of translational displacement,
but, when subject to the strong energy influence of the nuclei, they cannot
escape from these nuclei and therefore immediately enter into interaction with
them to produce the first atoms – those of hydrogen and antihydrogen. Positive nucleus
combines with an electron to produce hydrogen, whereas a negative nucleus
combines with an electron to produce antihydrogen. Since that time a
qualitatively new stage in the development of matter begins – that of the
formation of atoms, molecules, cosmic nebulae, stars, galaxies, etc.
Overall conclusion about the picture of the world and the
beginning of the evolution of substance
According to our ideas, the initial condition
for the existence of matter is neither the inertial state of substance, as it
was commonly supposed in Newtonian classical mechanics, nor, as the Big Bang
theory implies, the state of absolute singularity of substance concentrated at
a single point. It is rather the state of virtuality of two physical fields – electromagnetic
and weak. Or, in other words, the initial existence of matter does not manifest
itself in the form of actual substance, but in the form of fields whose
physical substrate constitutes virtual substance. The initial mode of existence
of both the fields and the initial actual substance (elementary particles) is not the mechanical process
by itself, as it has been generally hitherto believed, but an oscillatory
process accompanied by the synthesis and decay of particles. Note that the
synthesis and decay of such elementary particles as electron and positron on
the one hand, and neutrino and antineutrino, on the other hand, which
constitute the virtual state of electromagnetic and weak interaction field in
the former and latter case, respectively, are the initial mode of existence of
matter as such.
A picture of the world thereby emerges in
the form of a model where the Universe is based on two virtual particles, each
of which consists of two pairs of leptons: electron—positron and
neutrino-antineutrino. The former pair (electron-positron) constitutes the substrate
basis of electromagnetic field, which is nothing but the world ether that
fills the entire world universum and serves as the background for the entire
variety of processes existing in the world. According to this model, the
“physical vacuum” of modern physics is the state of electromagnetic field where
its virtual particles are in dynamic equilibrium. The same state also appears
to be the manifestation of what the researchers call the “dark matter”. The latter
pair (neutrino-antineutrino) constitutes the substrate basis of the weak interaction
field, however, it does not fill the entire space, but forms islands in the
Universe, and these very islands must be nothing but the so-called black holes.
According to this model, the elementary particles neutrino and antineutrino are
point expressions of the singularity (extreme density) of substance in the
Universe. This extreme density appears to explain the unique capability of the
forces of gravity characteristic for black holes.
As for the process of the evolution
of substance, it begins at the time when two virtual particles of different
nature – electron-positron, on the one hand, and neutrino-antineutrino, on the
other hand – collide to produce quarks. Based on the latter, elementary particles
are born, namely, first hadrons in the form of mesons, neutrons, protons, etc.,
the structure of particles becomes increasingly complex and the process has the
properties of a cycle. We suggested that the above particles are born in quasar
interiors. In all likelihood, the same process occurs in the interiors of all
stars without exception, and in Sun-like stars hadrons should form in the
central part. As for the birth of isolated leptones like electron and position,
they form not in quasars or stars, but at the boundary of existence of these cosmic
objects and their surrounding electromagnetic field. Further evolution of substance
– formation of atoms, molecules, etc., – is associated with the emergence of
isolated electron and positron.
