Content summary

Philosophy is the source of human civilization; Aristotle's philosophy is revealed the truth. From what is philosophy began to explain this conclusion. This is my study Aristotle's philosophy, and the latest achievements of the philosophy of the world to provide papers, BBS, engineers to readers.

Lead

Through the research Aristotle's philosophy, after that I understand human civilization is the source of philosophy. Philosophy is our philosophy and philosophical reveals the human principle, namely explain human activity pattern, “which is life on technology and reasoning”. In passing days, human progress of technology, the development of education and social democratic transitions are due to conform to the philosophy of nature of principle, it is not possible. Therefore, this paper analyzes the problems discussed, in order to explain the problem we need to define the nature of philosophy and form a definition. The so-called philosophical nature is often we speak of the definition of what is philosophy, in the form of philosophy is defined as the content of philosophy or philosophy is divided by several parts.

(1) the essence of philosophy. What is the problem that has been philosophical debate topics of philosophy? China's Jilin university professor of philosophy Gao Qing Hai had in his book the philosophy of a Japanese scholar's passage is very interesting, the Japanese scholar said“for philosophers, so is the worst, the best method of math ‘philosopher is what is afraid is put forward this problem. Philosophy in the various philosophers all activities on many occasions, I'm afraid I don't know even philosopher peers in doing" [1]. The Japanese scholars mean, not to say, but say no definition of philosophy of the traditional definition of western philosophy too, but which is a standard, like the realistic society people already did not know what is right and wrong as!

According to Aristotle's writings, I study found: two thousand years ago, Aristotle's philosophy is defined. Philosophy is: "there is knowledge, the existence of the existence of existence" and "dependent" [2]. For objects. Actually there exist "is what we say things or concepts; the existence of" existence "is the dependence of the things which we speak of is what explain things or defined. Define concepts and knowledge as the object" composed. In primitive or reason as the goal, think and what purpose as the science. The definition of science and philosophy goals and objectives. The research object of philosophy is the object of philosophy is knowledge, or reason, philosophy of nature is revealed. Do people,

(2) Philosophy. Aristotle's philosophy of the content is divided into two parts, practice and speculative philosophy. A bit more specific, Aristotle is through the nature of things or causes to prove the philosophy of the content. He thinks, because there are four things, because, because, the material of purpose and for [3]. Besides, he put the material for discussion in the form of part is called the first philosophy, discussed the first philosophy is two parts of the knowledge content, namely the concepts and definitions, the problem on the Aristotle is analyzed after;" He called for the discussion of dynamic physics (also called the second philosophy) or natural philosophy, the discussion of philosophy, or explain the reasons movement of principle, so called physics, Aristotle is mainly in the physics of the discussion. The first and second philosophy are called speculative philosophy. He called for the discussion of philosophy of praxis, namely the principle of humanity and explained. Because only one life, there is the desire and the animals. The content is the ethics in Aristotle's work. We use Pai Chu Fa the philosophy of the content is divided into two parts, namely the speculative and practice of two parts.

One, Knowledge and understanding of a discussion, the first philosophy.

We have introduced the first philosophy and philosophical (2) referred to as speculative philosophy in physics. Discuss the first philosophy form for discussion in the power, for the second philosophy or physics, it is both a speculative philosophy, the synthesis is one, Secondly, the second philosophy is power or physics, namely because things are static movement (in the form of exercise, it is something of a missing) movement, The first philosophy discloses the material with things is the reason of the existence of the separation, reveals the existence of things and what form, which is due to knowledge. The second is the first philosophy of fist philosophy, in other words, the knowledge of physics is due to form of the fist about knowledge. Have the power of physics we could enter the first philosophy, because this also verified after the first philosophy for physics. But the first philosophy is discussed in the metaphysics of later generations, but in the analysis of the discussion after. Aristotle's philosophy of the largest contribution to human, not only because of the first philosophy created knowledge system, also tell the human understanding.

After the analysis of Aristotle "in knowledge and understanding are discussed. After the analysis of Aristotle's" in "refers to the so-called division knowledge, as long as we grasp it, can according to know things "[4]. After the analysis of Aristotle in "not only explains what is knowledge, but he still use the first thing whether there are proved syllogistic combination of knowledge, and what is the acquisition of knowledge and understanding. - About the method of cognition, Aristotle for two kinds, namely inductive reasoning and proof of science. Regarding proof science is a known methods, in Aristotle after analysis ", he said: "if also has other known methods we discussed below. We know that whatever we gain knowledge is proved through. I called to produce the proof is of scientific knowledge," [5] syllogistic. About inductive reasoning is an understanding of the method in the problem, Aristotle after analysis "explained": obviously, we must get through initial premise of induction, because this is our knowledge through the concept of common senses obtain "[6]. These two words tell us the inductive reasoning and proof of science is two kinds of knowledge.

Aristotle and said nothing is known about what is the problem of knowledge, no need for him to discuss, because he has made the teacher Plato. What is known regarding the tiger, Plato, ted, "explained to realize" means to acquire knowledge[7]. This sentence tells us: the process of knowledge is known something. Then the Aristotle’s teacher Plato is based on two kinds of knowledge explained, a method is inductive reasoning, another one is proof of science (1) syllogistic reasoning.

Knowledge about the origin of the problem, after I was caused by the Greek words. The characters are drawing language (also called the meaning word), and then is pictographic, China has keeping pictographic until now, says it is ideograms. Westerners from Egypt to Phoenicia holy chirography, after logophonetic, letter writing. Due to the alphabet can explain things directly, so have more letters to the meaning of things do further explanation, this is the so-called definition. But China's hieroglyphs, see the word can see it represents, original is no longer with other words of things, so also no definition. Plato's works have things about names and definition of exploration, Aristotle in Plato etc on the basis of former solved using syllogistic reasoning with a poor definition of problem. Through the investigation of natural Aristotle illustrates the natural name, with the concept of later generations. Knowledge and understanding as it is said, this research and provisions of philosophy is the significant contribution. This also revealed a person's intelligence is one of the methods of understanding potential problems.

    Second, the principle of human practice philosophy revelation

Practice philosophy reveals people do. People work must be rational virtue and morality, only the two kinds of virtue, talent to be happy. Aristotle in Nicomachean ethics, said: "Happy in the reality meets moral activities", "virtue and morality are rational virtue too"[8]. Therefore, moral and ethical morality meets reason things not only oneself get happiness, and others will be happy. This is the principle of life, namely the principle of human nature.

On the principle of human nature, in his "ethics" Aristotle, makes a detailed discussion. His hand from the Angle of happiness, on the other hand from the Angle of human nature reveals the reasoning principle. His happiness in the discussion, he explained the "happiness" as the ultimate purpose - to the good. How can happiness in his statement said: "the happiness is the reality meets moral activities". When people seek happiness, but only activity can only virtue of activities to happiness. Virtue is two kinds of a rational moral character is mainly refers to the reason (or, cognition, and the knowledge of application), one is morality (morality refers mainly to justice. Contains two aspects: moral rational cognition, one is a desire. When a person to do things, if encounter with his knowledge of the cognition, through he had a solution to the problem, and finally achieve the purpose of man desires and tell the knowledge (meaning). But things alone are not enough knowledge, even when people work to social ethics. Social ethics and morality, morality is the basis and work. In morality, morality is the best, because the fair justice is the good of others, that means (good). Therefore, people will do according to justice. And justice is derived from natural, another from law, to make the law and justice must rely on democracy, it is proved by history origin and democratic society. Philosophy of so-called human goodness or evil, if use Aristotle's philosophy is good understanding, accord with virtue is good, do not accord with virtue if animals only desire is evil.

On the other hand from the Angle of deductive reasoning Aristotle reveals the human activity mode. Aristotle thinks that human activity is a thought, the thoughts is a process. We know that human activity is to achieve a goal (good), and human activity ultimate purpose is happy to have it. Animals, animal is not only survived, desire can survive. Therefore, the practice, it is thought, first reasoning (deductive reasoning), then choose action. Aristotle, the optimal platform in Hume of say: "is the aim and thought, is the end point of behavior"[9], in his Nicomachean ethics said: "the practice with nature and deductive also starting point. This is a purpose and highest good"[10]. We know that is the starting point and deductive reasoning property and end, people know the starting point and destination is clearly seen. But the practice of two starting point, the purpose and good (happiness), the property that have two, morality and virtue. The two end of interpretation is two, one must also is purpose, a is behavior. Specific reasoning is: Happiness - rational virtue, rational virtue - (selection) purpose, Purpose – morality, morality - (choice) behavior. Through the above discussion description: Aristotle is deductive reasoning reveals the activity patterns. People must realize the purpose, work must be based on morality (morality refers mainly to justice) and rational virtue (mental character is mainly refers to the cognition, or who has knowledge of the application, this is the life), also known as the principle of humanity.

Third, promote the five questions of human civilization through the investigation of Aristotle's philosophy, I have five, promote human civilization manner, or practice from philosophy.

(1) knowledge system. Knowledge system including the knowledge and knowledge of the composition and function of knowledge. Plato and Aristotle jointly completed the knowledge system of the relevant problems. After the analysis of Aristotle in say: "the so-called scientific knowledge, refers to as long as we grasp it, can according to know things ". This is about the definition of knowledge. Aristotle's teacher Plato explains knowledge. Plato is on the explanation of the o ted, he says, that knowledge is true faith to explain differences [11], Knowledge is the translation of the name and definition of "combination" or "concept and definition of". But what is the knowledge of Plato's definition of knowledge is the knowledge, but the composition. Knowledge about the problem, Plato is composed in the method of doing further explanation, also is the name, definition and the relationship between things done in detail, he said: "I mean: first, the real existence of the truth; second, the definition of; the third, "it said," this name, you know, our existing things can be asked two questions." "What the two California Cleveland?" "A person sometimes only in Athens, ask others put forward; sometimes only provides definitions, ask others to define the name" to provide the corresponding [12].

About knowledge, Plato and Aristotle, who were explained. In their view of knowledge are three: one is to teach things. Plato is on the tai o ted "said:" when we take away the knowledge, we call "teach", but when received from him knowledge, we call "learning", and when we put in his cage knowledge, in this sense, we call their own "know" (" know "Plato is said with knowledge") "[13]. Aristotle in the metaphysics of say: "overall, known and unknown whether the symbol is taught" [14]. Two things are known. Aristotle in the metaphysics said: "we said knowledge and feeling is the scale, because things with them, we just have cognitive". Three is the practice of knowledge. Knowledge into practice provides the basis this problem Plato and Aristotle are explained in Europe, Plato's Hume polity "say:" visible in all kinds of industries, knowledge not only provide humans produce good luck, but also act [15] ". Plato is on the wishes of in defense, said: "we have the ability to understand anybody know things, and this knowledge into action" [16]. Aristotle about knowledge and practice more detailed explanation of "ethics", in his philosophy of praxis of proof, the proof of principle of humanity is Aristotle.

(2) does the person's behavior patterns. Aristotle's philosophy is the practice of work according to reveal the. He said, practice philosophy is "understand (reveal individual things (that) I do every thing) and why should" science [17]. In other words, his practice philosophy with the work successfully explain deduction, achieve success (a) the purpose of behavior based on problems. Because people's behavior choice, the choice is to begin by deduction, and the activities and deduce the starting point is the objective and good (happiness), property is rational and morality. This means that people's behavior choice is based on the knowledge and law. In other words, people will get happiness, work must be based on the knowledge and law, that is, on the contrary, human nature, is the humanity, it is also practice philosophy of life. So tell us, Aristotle's philosophy of human behavior patterns, namely the principle.

  (3) promote the science and technology. Human history of science and technology and methods related proof, this method is Aristotle methods of knowledge. History has proved: the western development of science and technology is the two known method, scientific theory is by deductive reasoning, experimental science and technology by inductive reasoning. Europe's three academic revolution were also benefited people about the use of method. According to the British scholar, a Greek dampier stage, Renaissance and the twentieth century with the method. Harvard University President elliott had before, "said the books we westerners have one thing is that the east, which is not of the progress in the past 100 years. Western completely due to the induction by scholars with inductive unbeaten. East to the experimental method, so chi to seek true emptiness false" [18].

(4) provides a democratic system basis. Studies of ancient Greek philosophy makes me understand why some ethnic and national social system exists defects, its reason is the understanding and source of justice. Human society to achieve justice, we first make clear the significance of justice, Aristotle thinks that justice is a reservoir of all virtue and morality is the best in others, justice is the good (good), it is better than brave, morality is as brave as morality is because of his own good. Therefore, morality is the core should be fair. Every man according to his social ethical practice of justice, others will not happiness, happiness, harmonious society can also. If you lack of social morality, some people just this principle to do his will, others happy happiness. Such as slavery society, feudal society is holding the power of happiness, most people have happiness. To ensure the social morality to justice for the core, Aristotle thinks that laws must be impartial legal justice, is to ensure that the social morality fair. How to ensure legal justice? Western have a precedent that democracy. Western democracy is built on the basis of natural law, natural law has two, one is the theory of natural rights, the other is a social contract theory, based on the universal declaration of human rights and the west are American constitutionalism. However, the law of justice is the Aristotelian sources, and the principle of justice should also be to republican in the early for the core of each mark is discussed. The western theory of natural law is a kind of hypothesis. Of course, the practice of western constitutional core is the universal declaration of human rights and democracy, a democratic can ensure social justice, making the national power to justice and fairness of the exercise. So some exercise of power according to the practice, not only their own happiness, also ensure happiness of others.

(5) provides education mode. Our education purpose of human society in general, for the society said train qualified people, concrete is made by education pedagogue increase knowledge, training and development ability to adapt to society.

From the principle of human nature of Aristotle's explanation we found: only do these two kinds of virtue meets activity is happiness. Then said, "but neatly on technology and human life" [19] reasoning. That is, man is part of life experience on, Part of life by reasoning. It is two lifestyle western education model reveals the secrets.

Starting from

1) developed intelligence activities. Develop intelligence, the person is in fact the mining methods of knowledge induction. Potential Harvard University President Elliott had before, said: "we have something orientals westerners have, this is the induction method". Actually regardless of eastern or western everyone has the potential to induction, but we can't dig problems. We develop intelligence is the process of mining induced potential, especially in the minors, it will play from the nature of man, because children like to play and do all kinds of games, so they accumulated experience from this process is the potential for the development, to develop intelligence purposes. And out of one's life, by instilling book knowledge to develop the potential induction. It has been proved by history of China's education falls, the circle, the education against the children of humanity, with the principle of implant knowledge to improve intelligence and, eventually, methods, which have created intellectual and creative.

2) life is by reasoning improving a factor. We discuss the intelligence, another factor induction is deductive reasoning. Besides, we use the method of cognition of the inductive reasoning, people use more deductive reasoning (the first case of syllogistic reasoning), because the deductive reasoning is mathematical theory, the best method is scientific understanding of Aristotle told one way, It is in the rhetoric of proof of reasoning, In Plato's dialectics is the dialectical reasoning, In the practice of activities. Deduce Deductive reasoning method is practical, the scientific theory of people's work also can improve this aspect of intelligence. Of course to learn and grasp the deductive reasoning, want to notice the mathematical knowledge should be more training will be more effective, Plato had explained.

3) tell people life and reasoning, this "political animal training process. People must according to the fair ethics and morality and the core is fair, fair is a natural justice, depends on the nature of the justice from illustrates social political animal training process, but also tell people how to adapt to the social basis, this is called the basis of eq.

China brigade in Japan, a writer kato sino-forest "pre-school education published recently in China in the future" education but said: pre-school children at 3 o'clock: "how, with classmates; second, how to treat elders politeness; third, how to solve the problem by themselves.

So-called eq education or emotional, not only is the family education, which is friendship, equality, mutual cooperation and the education. Pre-school education, elementary school in the west and middle school in sport, but not a man of any sport, but organized activities, cultivate friendship, equality, mutual emotional intelligence of interpersonal relationship, and also in game activities cultivate interest, the development potential of this, we have achieved the education purpose.

Language

I speak the influence of human civilization five factors are from philosophy, have a plenty of consciousness, such as behavior patterns, knowledge system, Have not consciously, such as human's science and technology development, the establishment of a democratic society, and the education mode. But the tradition of western philosophy is not realize. I: why not put on the analysis of the historical philosophy and the practical significance of the clear, lies in the division of philosophy. From the 200 years has three points, philosophy is the natural philosophy and philosophy of spirit and logic. As the first philosophy, and the possible lal fix view, his name in the preface of the seers zhe said: "philosophy has three parts: natural science, ethics, natural dialectics. Discuss the universe and all the things of life, and our research related to all things; dialectical rule over both use logical rules" [20]. He also thinks philosophical development steps, it is also introduced in Plato's philosophy, he said, he said: "in the early days, it is only one theme, namely, the natural philosophy is introduced, namely the Socrates, Plato ethics will introduce a third, namely, that is, the philosophy of dialectics, perfect" [21].

Because of the philosophy of third overall philosophy that went wrong, which led to enhance human civilization of human philosophy no direct me after, it is worth pondering. Therefore, we must pay close attention to the correct Aristotle's philosophy, in order to achieve the purpose of ascension of human life.

_______________________________

   Annotation:

[1] GaoQingHai the philosophy of "page 88, jilin university press, 1993.

[2] Aristotle: the metaphysics, MiaoLi 1003a20 field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[3] Aristotle: the metaphysics, MiaoLi 983b1 field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[4] Aristotle: analysis of 71b19, MiaoLi field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[5] Aristotle: analysis of 71b18, MiaoLi field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[6] Aristotle: analysis of 100b4, MiaoLi field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[7] Plato: o the 209E "ted, WangXiaoChao: complete collection of Plato, people's publishing house, 2003

[8] Aristotle: of nicomachean ethics 1008b30, MiaoLi field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[9] : the optimum stage Hume Aristotle, MiaoLi 1227b34 ethics, field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[10] Aristotle: of nicomachean ethics 1144a31, MiaoLi field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[11] Plato: o the 210A "ted, WangXiaoChao: complete collection of Plato, people's publishing house, 2003

[12] Plato: "895E, WangXiaoChao: complete collection of Plato, people's publishing house, 2003

[13] Plato: o the 198B "ted, WangXiaoChao: complete collection of Plato, people's publishing house, 2003

[14] Aristotle: the metaphysics, MiaoLi 981b9 field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

Plato: [15] champions of polity, Hume's 281B WangXiaoChao: complete collection of Plato, people's publishing house, 2003

[16] : in defence of Plato 979C WangXiaoChao, "Naomi," Plato's complete works ", people's publishing house, 2003

[17] Aristotle: the metaphysics, MiaoLi 982b5 field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[18], "what philosophy is HuJunZhu first page 197, Peking University press, 2002

[19] Aristotle: the metaphysics, MiaoLi 980b27 field: the complete collection of Aristotle, Chinese people's university press, 1993

[20] the  lal repaired nehemiah woth: the name of the seers zhe, xu, from the first eight pages, Princeton university press, 2010

[21] the  lal repaired nehemiah woth: the name of the seers, xu from zhe, first 158, guangxi normal university press, 2010

 亚里士多德哲学是人类文明之源泉

通辽市行政学院  张少禹

内容提要

哲学是人类文明之源泉，亚里士多德的哲学就揭示了这个道理。本文从什么是哲学开始解释了这个结论。此文是我研究亚里士多德哲学的最新成果，也是我向首届世界哲学论坛提供的论文，现公布于众，以飧读者。

引  子

通过研究亚里士多德哲学后使我明白，哲学是人类文明之源泉。哲学是我们人的哲学，哲学揭示了人性的原理，即解释了人的活动模式，这就是“靠技术和推理生活”。在逝去的岁月里，人类科学技术的进步、社会民主的发展以及教育方式的转变都是因符合了哲学人性的原理才获得的，否则是不可能的。故此，本文将对这一问题做一下探讨，为了说明这个问题我们得对哲学的本质定义和形式定义做一介绍。所谓的哲学本质定义就是我们常讲的什么是哲学问题，所谓哲学的形式定义就是对哲学内容的划分或者说哲学是由几个部分组成的。

（一）哲学的本质定义。关于什么是哲学的问题，一直是哲学界争论不休的话题。中国吉林大学哲学教授高清海曾在他的《哲学的憧憬》一书引用一个日本学者的一段话非常耐人寻味，这位日本学者说：“对于哲学家来说最糟糕的，因而也是刁难哲学家的最好方法，恐怕就是提出‘什么是哲学’这一问题。哲学家们从事着各不相关的种种活动，恐怕很多场合连哲学家本人也不大清楚同行们在做什么”［1］。这位日本学者的意思，不是说哲学没有定义，而是说传统的西方哲学的定义太多了，熟不知哪一个是标准的，就像现实社会人们已经不知道什么是对错一样了！

根据我对亚里士多德著作研究发现：两千年前亚里士多德就是哲学下了定义。哲学是：以知识（原文是以“存在的存在”和“存在的存在的依存者”［2］。为对象。实际上“存在的存在”就是我们所讲的事物的名称或概念；“存在的存在的依存者”就是我们所讲的事物的事物的是什么的解释或叫定义。概念和定义组成知识）为对象；以本原或原因为目标；以为什么而做为目的的科学。这个 定义科学地揭示了哲学的对象、目标和目的。哲学的研究对象就是知识，哲学的目标是本原或原因，哲学的目的就是揭示人们做事的依据。

（二）哲学的划分。亚里士多德把哲学内容的划分两个部分，即思辨哲学和实践哲学。具体一点说，亚里士多德是通过事物的本原或原因来证明哲学的内容划分的。他认为，事物有四因，即质料因、形式因、动力因和目的因［3］。除质料因外，他把讨论形式因的部分被称为第一哲学，第一哲学所讨论的内容就是知识的两个部分，即概念和定义，这个问题亚里士多德是在他的《后分析篇》进行的；他把讨论动力因的称之为物理学（也叫第二哲学）或自然哲学，第二哲学讨论事物的运动原因的，或者说解释物的原理的，因此又叫物理学，亚里士多德主要是在《物理学》中讨论的。第一和第二哲学都被称为思辨哲学。他把讨论目的因的称之为实践哲学，即对人性的原理的解释和说明。因为只有人过有目的的生活，而动物是实现欲望的生存。这个内容亚里士多德是在有关《伦理学》的著作中进行的。这样我们用排除法哲学的内容就分两个部分，即思辨的和实践的两个部分。

一、讨论知识与认识的第一哲学

 我们前面已经介绍了第一哲学和第二哲学（物理学）统称为思辨哲学。讨论形式因的为第一哲学，讨论动力因的为第二哲学或物理学，正是这两者合成了思辨哲学，这是其一；其二，第二哲学或物理学讨论的是动力因，即事物运动（静止也是事物运动的形式，是运动的一种缺失）的原因；第一哲学揭示的是与事物的质料分离存在的原因，即揭示事物是否存在和事物的是什么的形式因，即知识。第二哲学是第一哲学的前提性知识，换句话说，动力因（物理学）是形式因（关于知识）的前提性知识。有了动力因的物理学我们才有可能进入形式因的第一哲学，这也验证了第一哲学为物理学之后的观点；不过第一哲学的讨论不是在后人所说的《形而上学》中进行的，而是在《后分析篇》讨论的。亚里士多德的第一哲学对人类的贡献最大，因为第一哲学不仅创建了知识的体系，同时告诉了人类的认识方法。

亚里士多德在《后分析篇》讨论了知识与认识方法。亚里士多德在《后分析篇》中说：“所谓科知识，是指只要我们把握了它，就能据此知道事物的东西”［4］。亚里士多德在《后分析篇》中不仅解释了知识是什么，而且他还用第一格的三段论证明了事物是否存在和是什么的组合知识，以及知识的获得方法——认识。关于认识的方法，亚里士多德归纳为两种，即归纳推理和证明科学。关于证明科学是一种认识方法的问题，亚里士多德是在《后分析篇》中解释的，他说：“是否还具有其他认识的方法我们在下文进行讨论。我们知道，我们无论如何都是通过证明获得知识的。我所谓的证明是指产生科学知识的三段论” ［5］；关于归纳推理是一种认识方法的问题，亚里士多德在《后分析篇》中解释说：“很显然，我们必须通过归纳获得最初前提的知识，因为这也是我们通过感官知觉获得普遍概念的方法” ［6］。这两段话告诉了我们归纳推理和证明科学是两种认识方法问题。

亚里士多德并没说什么是认识，关于什么是认识的问题，他没有必要讨论，因为他的老师柏拉图已经做了解释。关于什么是认识，柏拉图在《泰阿泰德篇》中解释说：“‘去认识’的意思就是去获得知识” ［7］。这句话就告诉了我们：获得事物知识的过程就是认识。继而亚里士多德在老师柏拉图的什么是认识的基础上解释了两种认识方法，即一个是归纳推理，另一个是证明科学（第一格的三段论推理）。

关于知识的起源问题，经过我的考察是古希腊人的文字所引起的。人类最早的文字都是图画文字（又叫句意文字），而后是象形文字，中国的象形文字一直保持到现在，现在称它为表意文字。西方人从埃及圣书体发展到腓尼基文字，后成为表音文字，即用字母代表事物。由于字母不能直接解释事物，因此就得用更多的字母来对事物的意义做进一步的解释，这就是所谓的定义。而中国的象形文字，见字就能看明白它所代表的事物，原初是不用再对事物用其他文字解释的，因此也没有定义的说法。柏拉图的著作就有关于事物的名称和定义的探索，亚里士多德在柏拉图等前人的基础上利用三段论推理解决了种加属差的定义问题。亚里士多德通过对自然的考察说明了事物的自然名称，就是后人用的概念。知识和认识就如上面所说的被研究和规定了，这是哲学的重大贡献。由此还揭示了人的智力潜能认识方法之一的归纳问题。

二、实践哲学揭秘人性的原理

实践哲学揭示了人们做事的根据。人们做事必须理智德性和伦理德性，只有符合了这两种德性，人才能够幸福。亚里士多德在《尼各马科伦理学》中说：“幸福就是合乎德性的现实活动”，“德性有理智德性和伦理德性两种” ［8］。因此，做了合乎理智德性和伦理德性的事情不仅自己得到幸福，而且他人也会幸福。这就是人生的原理，也就是人性的原理。

关于人性原理的揭示，亚里士多德在他的《伦理学》中做了详细的讨论。他一方面从幸福的角度，另一方面从推理的角度揭示了人性原理。他在讨论幸福时，他把“幸福”解释为终极的目的——至善。他在表述怎样才能幸福时说：“幸福就是合乎德性的现实活动”。就是说当人们在寻求幸福时，只有活动才能幸福，而且只有符合德性的活动才能幸福。德性分两种，一个是理智德性（理智德性是主要指认知，或者说，人所具备的知识的应用），一个是伦理德性（伦理德性主要是指公正）。理智德性含两个方面：一个是认知，一个是想望。当一个人遇到事物想做，如果他具备了这个事物的知识，通过认知他就有了解决问题的办法，最终达到人想望的目的（这同时告诉了知识的意义）。但是做事仅凭知识还是不够的，除知识外，人做事的时候还要服从社会伦理。社会伦理就是伦理德性，伦理德性也是做事的依据。在伦理德性中，最好的伦理德性是公正，因为公正是对他人的善（善，即好的意思）。因此，人们做事还要依据公正。而公正一个是源于自然，另一个源于法律，要使法律公正必须依赖于民主，这是被历史证明了的民主社会的由来。哲学中所谓人性善或性恶，如果用亚里士多德的哲学就好理解了，符合德性性就善，不符合德性如动物一样仅仅满足欲望的就是恶。

另一方面亚里士多德从演绎推理的角度揭示了人的活动模式。亚里士多德认为，人的活动首先是一个思想活动，这个思想是一个演绎过程。我们知道人的活动都是要达到某种目的（善），而且人的活动最终目的是幸福（至善）；动物则不然，动物是生存，只要满足欲望就能生存。因此，人的实践活动，首先是思想活动，先进行推理（演绎推理），然后选择行动。亚里士多德在《优台谟伦理学》中说：“目的是思想的起点，而思想的终点则是行为的起点” ［9］，他在《尼各马科伦理学》中说：“实践活动的演绎也具有本原和始点。这就是某种目的和至善” ［10］。我们知道演绎推理有始点、中词和终点，人们知道始点和中词，终点也就清楚了。不过实践活动的演绎有两个始点，目的和至善（幸福），那中词也得有两个，即伦理德性和理智德性。这两个演绎的终点也必然是两个，一个是目的，一个是行为。具体的推理是：至善——伦理德性——伦理德性——（选择）目的；目的——理智德性——理智德性——（选择）行为。通过以上的讨论说明：亚里士多德是通演绎推理揭示了人的活动模式。人要实现幸福的目的，做事必须依据伦理德性（伦理德性主要是指公正）和理智德性（理智德性是主要指认知，或者说，人所具备的知识的应用），这就是人生的原理，也称人性的原理。

三、促进人类文明的五大问题

通过我对亚里士多德哲学的考察，有五种推进人类社会文明的方式或做法都源于哲学。

（一）知识体系。知识体系包括知识及知识的组成以及知识的作用。柏拉图和亚里士多德共同完成了知识体系的有关问题。亚里士多德在《后分析篇》中说：“所谓科学知识，是指只要我们把握了它，就能据此知道事物的东西”。这是亚里士多德关于知识的定义。

亚里士多德的老师柏拉图解释了知识的组成。柏拉图在《泰阿泰德》中解释的，他说，知识就是真实的信念伴以差异的解释［11］；翻译过来知识就是“名称和定义的组合”或者是“概念和定义的组合”。不过柏拉图所说的什么是知识这是知识的定义，而是知识的组成。关于知识组成的问题，柏拉图还在《法篇》中做过进一步解释，也就是对名称、定义和事物的关系做了详细地说明，他说：“雅典人  我的意思是：第一，事物的真实存在；第二，对这个真实存的‘定义’；第三，它的‘名称’。这样说你就明白了，我们对存在的事物都可以问两个问题。”“克利尼亚哪两上？”“雅典人  一个人有时候只提出名称，要求别人提供定义；有时候只提出定义，要求别人提供相应的名称” ［12］。

关于知识的作用，柏拉图和亚里士多德都做过解释。在他们看来知识的作用有三种：一是传授事物的作用。柏拉图在《泰阿泰德篇》中说：“当我们把知识交出去的时候，我们称之为‘教’，而当从他那里得到知识时，我们称之为‘学’，当我们把知识关在他的鸟笼中，在此意义上拥有它们时，我们称之为‘知道’（ ‘知道’柏拉图说就是‘拥有知识’）” ［13］。亚里士多德在《形而上学》中说：“总而言之，知与不知的标志是能否传授” ［14］。二是认识事物的作用。亚里士多德在《形而上学》中说：“我们说知识和感觉是事物的尺度，因为借助于它们，我们才有所认知”。三是知识的实践的作用。知识为实践提供依据这个问题柏拉图和亚里士多德都做过解释，柏拉图在《欧绪德谟篇》中说：“可见，知识在各种行业中不仅给人类提供好运，而且还产生好的行动” ［15］。柏拉图在《依庇诺米篇》中说：“我们中的任何人都有能力理解所得知的事情，并依据这种知识去行动” ［16］。亚里士多德关于知识与实践的关系做的解释更详细，他在《伦理学》中对实践哲学的证明，这个证明就是亚里士多德对人性原理的解读。

（二）揭密了人的行为模式。亚里士多德实践哲学就是揭示了做事依据的。他说，实践哲学就是“懂得（揭示）个别事物（做每件事情）应该为什么而做的科学” ［17］。换句话说，他的实践哲学用演绎解释了做事成功（成功，即达到行为的目的了）的依据问题。由于人的行为以选择开始，选择是由演绎活动而获得，而这个演绎的始点是目的和至善（幸福），中词是理智和伦理德性。这就是说，人的行为的选择就是依据知识和法律做出的。换句话说人要获得幸福，做事必须依据知识和法律，这就是人性，反之，就是反人性，这也是实践哲学所揭示的人生的原理。所以，亚里士多德哲学告诉了我们人的行为模式，也就是人性的原理。

（三）推进了科学技术。人类科学技术的发展史证明了与方法相关，这个方法就是亚里士多德的认识方法。历史已经证明：西方的科学技术的发展就是靠这两种认识方法，理论科学是靠演绎推理，实验科学和技术靠的是归纳推理。欧洲的三次学术革命也都得益与人们对方法的使用。据英国学者丹皮尔介绍，希腊的极盛期、文艺复兴时期和二十世纪都与方法相关。美国哈佛大学前校长艾略特曾著书说，“我们西方人有一样东西是东方人所没有的，这就是归纳的方法。西方近百年来的进步完全得力于归纳方法的运用。东方学者未尝用归纳方法来进行实验以求其真，所以驰鹜于空虚不实之中” ［18］。

（四）提供了民主体制依据。研究古希腊哲学才使我明白，为什么有些民族和国家社会制度存在着缺陷，其原因是对公正的理解和来源不清。人类社会要达到公正，首先要清楚公正的意义，亚里士多德认为，公正是一切德性的总汇，是最好的伦理德性，公正是对他人的善（善是好的意思），它比勇敢等伦理德性来说要好，因为勇敢等伦理德性是对自己的善。因此，公正应是伦理德性核心。每个人依据公正的社会伦理实践自己不仅幸福，他人也会幸福，社会也就能和谐。如果社会伦理德性缺失公正这个原则，一些人做事自己能够幸福，他人就不会幸福。例如奴隶制、封建制社会就是握有权力的人幸福，多数人就没有幸福而言。要保证社会伦理德性以公正为核心，亚里士多德认为，法律必须公正，法律公正是确保社会伦理德性公正的必然。怎样保证法律公正？西方已经有了先例，那就是民主。西方的民主是建立在自然法的基础上的，自然法理论有两点，一个是自然权利，另一个是社会契约理论，在此基础上西方才有人权宣言和美国的宪政。不过，亚里士多德对于法律是公正的来源，以及共和也应以公正原则为核心早就在《尼各马克伦理学》进行了讨论。西方的自然法理论只是一种假设。当然，实践上西方的人权宣言和宪政核心就是民主，有了民主就能确保社会公正，使国家的权力能够公正和公正的行使。这样一些行使权力的人，按此实践，不仅自己幸福，也保证其他人的幸福。

（五）提供了教育模式。我们人类社会兴办教育的目的概括地说培养人，为社会输送合格的人，具体是通过教育使受教育者增加知识、开发智力和培养适应社会的能力。

从对亚里士多德人性原理人性的解释我们发现：只有做了合乎这两种德性的活动才是幸福。再简洁地说，“惟有人类靠技术和推理生活” ［19］。也就是说，人一部分是靠经验生活；一部分靠推理生活。正是这两生活方式揭示了西方教育模式的秘密。

1.从活动出发开发了智力。开发智力，实际就是挖掘人的潜能归纳的认识方法。美国哈佛大学前校长艾略特曾说：“我们西方人有一样东西是东方人所没有的，这就是归纳的方法”。实际上无论东方还是西方所有人都具有归纳这个潜能，只是我们能不能够挖掘的问题。我们开发智力实质就是挖掘归纳潜能的过程，特别是未成年人，这要从人的天性玩耍来完成，由于孩子喜欢玩耍、做各种游戏，这样他们从中积累了经验，这个过程就开发了归纳的潜能了，达到了开发智力的目的。而脱离人的生活，靠灌输书本知识来开发潜能归纳是不行的。这已经被历史证明了的，中国的教育就落入这个怪圈，儿童的教育违背了人性的原理，用灌输知识的方法来提升智力，最终创造智力没有提升，哪有创造力。

2.人靠推理生活也是提高智力的一个因素。我们讨论智力中的一个因素归纳，另一个是演绎推理。除我们使用认识的方法之一归纳推理外，人们用的更多的是演绎推理（第一格的三段论推理），因为演绎推理是数理等理论科学的最佳方法，也是亚里士多德所讲的认识方法之一；它在修辞术中就是推理证明；在柏拉图的辩证法中就是辩证推理；在人的实践演绎活动的演绎。演绎推理实际就是理论科学的方法，看来人们的做事也能提升这方面的智力。当然对于演绎推理的学习和把握应该更要注重数理知识的训练，这样会更有效，柏拉图曾做过解释。

3.推理生活也告诉了人这个“政治动物”的培养过程。人做事要依据于公正的伦理道德，而伦理德性核心是公正，公正一个是赖于自然的公正，这个源于自然的公正说明了人的社会“政治动物”的培养过程，而且还告诉人怎样适应社会的依据，这就是所谓人的情商之依据。

旅华日本作家加藤嘉一在近期发表的“学前教育决定中国未来”一文中指出：学前教育无非教育孩子三点：“一、如何与同学相处；二、如何礼貌对待长辈；三、如何靠自己解决问题”。

所谓情商或情感教育，不仅是亲情教育，更主要的是友爱、平等、互助和合作的教育。西方的学前教育、小学乃至中学都是在戏耍中进行的，但是并非是个人的任意戏耍，而是有组织的活动，从中培养了友爱的情商、平等互助的人际关系，也在游戏活动中培养了兴趣，开发了归纳这个的潜能，达到了我们所一直强调的教育目的。

结   语

我所讲的影响人类文明的五种因素都来自哲学，有的是自觉的，如行为模式，知识体系；有的是不自觉的，如人类的科学技术的发展，民主社会的建立，以及教育模式。但这些传统的西方哲学是没有认识到的。我分析历史上为什么没有把哲学的实际意义搞清楚，原因就在于对哲学的划分。从公元200年起哲学一直三分法，即自然哲学、精神哲学和逻辑学。例如第一个哲学史家第欧根尼·拉尔修就持这种观点，他在《名哲言行录》序言里说：“哲学有三个部分：自然学、伦理学、辩证法。自然学讨论宇宙以及其中的所有事物；伦理学研究生活及其与我们相关的所有事物；辩证法则统领这两者所使用的论理规则” ［20］。他还认为哲学的发展也分三步，这是他在介绍柏拉图的哲学时说的，他说：“在早期，它只有一个主题，即自然哲学是，后来苏格拉底引入了第二个，即伦理学，柏拉图则引入第三个，即辨证法，这样，哲学就趋于完善了” ［21］。

正是由于哲学的三分法使得整体的哲学误入了歧途，致使能够提升人类文明的哲学没有为人类直接派上用场，这是值得深思的！因此，我们必须抓紧对亚里士多德哲学加以正确的推广，以达到提升人类生活之目的。

注释：

［1］       高清海著，《哲学的憧憬》第88页，吉林大学出版社出版，1993年版。

［2］       亚里士多德：《形而上学》1003a20，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［3］       亚里士多德：《形而上学》983b1，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［4］       亚里士多德：《后分析篇》71b19，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［5］       亚里士多德：《后分析篇》71b18，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［6］       亚里士多德：《后分析篇》100b4，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［7］       柏拉图：《泰阿泰德篇》209E，王晓朝译:《柏拉图全集》，人民出版社，2003年版

［8］       亚里士多德：《尼各马科伦理学》1008b30，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［9］       亚里士多德：《优台谟伦理学》1227b34，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［10］     亚里士多德：《尼各马科伦理学》1144a31，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［11］     柏拉图：《泰阿泰德篇》210A，王晓朝译:《柏拉图全集》，人民出版社，2003年版

［12］     柏拉图：《法篇》895E，王晓朝译:《柏拉图全集》，人民出版社，2003年版

［13］     柏拉图：《泰阿泰德篇》198B，王晓朝译:《柏拉图全集》，人民出版社，2003年版

［14］     亚里士多德：《形而上学》981b9，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［15］     柏拉图：《欧绪德谟篇》281B，王晓朝译:《柏拉图全集》，人民出版社，2003年版

［16］     柏拉图：《依庇诺米篇》979C，王晓朝译:《柏拉图全集》，人民出版社，2003年版

［17］     亚里士多德：《形而上学》982b5，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［18］     胡军著，《哲学是什么》第197页，北京大学出版社，2002版

［19］     亚里士多德：《形而上学》980b27，苗力田主编:《亚里士多德全集》，中国人民大学出版社，1993年版

［20］     第欧根尼ž拉尔修著：《名哲言行录》，徐开来等译，第8页，广西师范大学出版社，2010年版

［21］     第欧根尼ž拉尔修著：《名哲言行录》，徐开来等译，第158页，广西师范大学出版社，2010年版